Perception vs Reality: Diversion Risks in Humanitarian Assistance: Comparing cash, vouchers and in-kind

In 2025, the CALP Commissioned Key Aid Consulting to carry out an independent research to look into the reality of diversion risks of cash against perceptions. This study examines the risks and realities of aid diversion, with a focus on cash and in-kind resource transfers. Drawing on global evidence, it combines a desk review of 79 documents with 42 in-depth key informant interviews. The research places particular emphasis on seven of the world’s most complex crises: Afghanistan, Democratic Republic of Congo, Lebanon, Somalia, Sudan, Syria, and Yemen.

Our research found that diversion is modality-neutral. Cash is not risk-free, but its risks are not inherently greater than those associated with in-kind assistance or vouchers. In fact, the primary determinants of diversion are contextual: insecurity, political interference, weak institutions, rapid-onset emergencies, remote management, and failing infrastructure. By being less visible than truck convoys, ,cash particularly digital transfers, is more discreet, traceable, and typically involves fewer intermediaries. This can reduce exposure points where diversion occurs. There is a control paradox with Cash: because donors often apply heightened scrutiny to cash, implementers have developed more advanced control systems. Paradoxically, this can make cash the more secure option in practice.